China is one of the world's oldest countries, with a long-standing civilization that was created in the long course of history. As an important component of this treasure-house of culture, furniture art has experienced prosperity and decline. For thousands of years, our forefathers created, by their ability and wisdom, characteristically styled furniture which clearly reflects the development of production, lifestyle, thoughts, and feelings, as well as the artistic values of different ages. As for the artistic achievements of Chinese Furniture, it has had a great impact on many Eastern and Western countries and plays an important role in world furniture.

The distinguishing feature of Chinese furniture lies in perfecting the functions of both serving human beings, and expressing the different artistic styles developed in specific times. In general, furniture of the Ming and Qing Dynasties typically show their exquisite craft value, artistic value, and historical cultural value. This makes furniture art a part of the valuable heritage in which we Chinese take pride.

The art of Chinese furniture is constantly developing and recreating itself with the advance of history. The process of its development is one of inheritance and advance. Both simple and unsophisticated folk furniture, representing the thoughts and beliefs of the working people, and magnificently decorated carved palace furniture, reflecting the luxurious and extravagant lives of the rulers, are embodiments of the creative wisdom of the working people. They are permeated with the blood and sweat of craftsmen throughout the ages, reflecting to a greater or lesser extent the people's hopes for good fortune, pursuit of happiness, customs, habits and interests. Whether consciously or unconsciously, they embody the aesthetic values of the working people, and many of the superb skills they incorporate are beyond our abilities today.

Furniture of the Shang, Zhou, Warring States, Han, and Three Kingdoms Periods

As early as ancient cave times, in order to fight the cold and heat as well as damp, human beings began to use grasses, leaves, and animal fur as mats, and use stumps or stones as blocks. These were the embryonic forms of early furniture.

As wooden buildings came into being, humans abandoned their primitive cave dwellings, and furniture was brought into new development. From the bronzewares of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, we can find 'Zu' and 'Jin', which were the embryonic forms of the later small table, long table, desk, chest, and closet. We can also find many exquisite carving patterns of clouds and of mythical beasts such as the 'taotie' and 'kui'. From thousands of tortoise shells used for divination and record-keeping, we can deduce the appearance of tables and beds, which were widely used according to the pictographs.

By the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the rise in production capability pushed forward the development of handicrafts, and lacquerware art reached a very high level. A large quantity of lacquerware furniture has been excavated form Chu graves in Xinyang, Henan Province, and Warring States graves in Hunan Province. Among them are desks, counters, small tables, and wooden beds lacquered with colored patterns. In addition, advances in building and smelting technology brought about such woodworking tools as axe, saw, drill, chisel, and shovel, and measurement tools such as the standardized ruler. Swallowtail tenons, concave and convex tenons, and cutting-tip tenons were also widely used in the manufacture of wooden furniture.

In the Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms Period, furniture types such as bed, couch, table, desk, screen, cabinet, chest, and clothing stand developed on the foundation of those of the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods. However, due to the custom of sitting on the ground, the legs of the furniture were short. Tables in the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States were usually put on beds. Desks in the Han Dynasty were often placed in front of the bed or beside the couch, and their surfaces gradually became long and wide. Screens were set up behind or beside the bed. By the reign of the emperor Ling Di of the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the 'Hu-chuang' bed had spread form the 'western Realms' (today's Northwest China) to the central plains, but it was prevalent only in palaces and among the nobility, used as necessities when bunting of in time of war.

Furniture of the Eastern & Western Jin, Northern & Southern, Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties

In the Eastern and Western Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, wars among warlords went on ceaselessly as a result of struggles for power and profit among the ruling class. This promoted the exchange and mixing together of the culture and art of different peoples and religions. At the same time the forms and functions of furniture were also thoroughly combined with each other. Although people were still used to sitting on the ground, the use of the 'hu-chuang' bed from the Northwest had gradually become widespread, and various kinds of high-legged sitting furniture began to appear, such as the armchair and square stool. Beds and couches became higher and bigger, with curtains at the top and surrounded by a removable screen. Besides a small table, there was a cushion for resting the back, and a round-backed armchair on the bed.

In the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties, early Chinese feudal society reached its acme, owing to stable politics, a prosperous economy, and a flourishing culture. Architectural techniques gradually matured, stimulating the further transformation and diversification of furniture.

First, the custom of sitting in a chair spread form the upper class to the entire population, although the habit of sitting on the ground did not disappear. Therefore, both high and low furniture existed simultaneously. From the painting 'Han Xi Zai Ye An Tu' by the Southern Tang artist Gu Hongzhong, and from the frescoes at Dunhuang, we can see that new kinds of furniture such as the round-backed armchair, long table, long stool, round-backed stool, chair and bed with curtain and screen, concave bed, drum rack and candlestick were used rationally, and the overall size was coordinated with the human body. Some parts of the furniture were carved the symmetrical curvilinear patterns, such as the wooden stand of the three-part folding screen shown in Wang Qihan's work 'Kan Shu Tu', written in the Five Dynasties Period, and the lower parts of the bed, couch, and long desk in houses depicted in frescoes at Dunhuang. Lacquerware and inlay art was also widely used in furniture. This is clearly reflected in paintings depicting the lives of the ruling class and nobles of the Tang Dynasty.

Furniture of the Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties

After Zhao Kuangyin came to power in A.D.960, he took effective measures to bring peace and stability to the country. This caused the agriculture, handicrafts, industry, architecture, and technology of the Song Dynasty to resume and develop rapidly. The scale of cities was enlarged, and numerous building projects were undertaken on palaces, pavilions, and gardens. Meanwhile, the style of sitting in a chair, which began in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, became very popular in the Song Dynasty. Tall furniture such as tables, chairs, stools, beds, closets, and screens were widely used, and many forms of furniture came into use. This is vividly depicted in Song Dynasty paintings 'Qing Ming Shang He Tu' and 'Ban Xian Qiu Xing Tu'. Moreover, children's chairs, stools, and desks made specifically for school use spread among the old-style private schools.

In terms of structure, 'hu-men' cabinet structure popular in the Sui and Tang was replaced by post and lintel structure under the influence of building beams, timbers, columns, and wooden constructions. Curved ivory-inlaid decoration was used in desk legs and connecting surfaces. This can be found in furniture unearthed at Julu, Hebei Province. Some of the table surfaces were inlaid on four sides and also had ivory strips alternated with uneven surfaces. Some strips extended outward. The legs were curved and shaped like a horse's hoof; some curled inward, others extended outward. At this time, a large number of decoration styles appeared.

New changes also occurred in interior decoration during the Song Dynasty. Generally, a chair was placed in front of the screen in the hall, with four chairs on each side. Sometimes, only two round stools were put in front of the screen for guests sitting face to face. Furniture arrangements in the study and bedroom, however, usually used asymmetrical styles with no fixed rule.

After the Southern Song Dynasty was destroyed bye the Yuan, industry and commerce continued to develop despite repeated disasters in agriculture. Overseas trade was more prosperous than before. Although the furniture mostly followed the Song Dynasty tradition, many new developments appeared, too, such as the use of the 'luowo' jamb, 'bawang' jamb, and high girdle in manufacture. The structure tended to become more rational and laid a foundation for the further development of Ming and Qing Dynasty furniture.

Furniture of the Ming Dynasty

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty. Due to the stable political situation, social economy and overseas trade attained and unprecedented resurgence and development. With frequent economic and cultural exchange with foreign countries, and imports of precious timber form southeast Asia, a large number of palaces, residential buildings, and gardens were built on an unbridled scale. Meanwhile, many scientific and technical books on cabinet-making came into being, such as 'Lu Ban Jing', 'Xiu shi Lu' (Decoration Record), 'Zun Sheng Ba Jian (The eight letters of Zun Sheng), and San Cai Tu Hui (Pictorial Collection of three Talents). All of this helped the development of Ming furniture or reach an unparalleled level. The achievements of its modeling art, manufacturing techniques, and functional standards took on a distinctive style and gained important place among the furniture of the world.

We can see from either existing Ming furniture of the paintings and woodcuts of that time that the furniture of the Ming Dynasty was rich in varieties and styles. It can be divided by function into six categories: stools and chairs; tables and desks; cabinets and chests; beds and couches; platforms and racks; and screens. At this time, the concept of furniture sets was formed, and complete sets of furniture appeared in hall, bedroom, and study, divided by the function of each space. They were usually arranged symmetrically, for instance one table with two chairs or four stools. Sometimes furniture was arranged freely in accordance with tow chairs of four stools. Sometimes furniture was arranged freely in accordance with the size of the room and requirements of use.

The timber used in Ming Dynasty furniture was of tough quality, high strength, beautiful color and fine grain. This contributed to the production of extremely precise, scientific tenon structures. The parts were small but of high strength; the shape was simple but could be carved and processed ornately. The frame structure developed in the Song Dynasty advanced to quit a high artistic level in the Ming Dynasty, and this structure, combined with creative new styles and ornaments on the accessory parts, gave Ming furniture a pure and simple, but elegant and delicate style, unique in its complementary use of the hard and the soft.

Furniture of the Qing Dynasty

In 1640, the Ming Dynasty was overthrown in a peasant uprising led by Li Zicheng, butthe fruits of victory were captured by Manchu nobles. In 1661, the Southern Ming Dynasty was destroyed and the Qign Dynasty was founded. China was once again united.

In the early Qing Dynasty, the seeds of developing capitalism were destroyed by various suppressive policies. Furnitre at that time tended to follow and inherit the traditional styles of the Ming Dynasty, with no great changes in style or structure. But in the mid-17th century, the Qing economy began to resume and develop to a prosperous stage, flourishing during the reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. Numerous royal gardens and buildings were constructed, and the private gardens of the nobles contended with each other for beauty. The search for material pleasure and the extremely decadent ideology is clearly reflected in the gaudy interior decoration. The application of precise craftsmanship, along with the absorption of Ming Dynasty furniture structure gave Qing furniture a unique style, distinct form that of the Ming Dynasty. As for structure, stress was laid on stability and impressive manner, and many new types of furniture appeared in the Qing Dynasty, such as the multifunction showcase, and folding and removable tables and chairs. In the Palace Museum in Beijing, we can find many immovable articles of furniture made with unparalleled skill.

In the interior arrangement of the furniture of the Qing Dynasty, al long table was usually set in the main hall with a square table in front of it and a wooden lounge chair on each side. The bed was placed on one side of the bedroom with a small long table on each side. Garden furniture was arranged in a symmetrical style. In the middle of the inner hall, a 'kang', or heatable brick bed, was usually used with a desk and music table on each side. Sometimes it was simply replaced with a round table and several stools.

Furniture of Modern Times

In the first half of the 19th century, the politics of the Qing Dynasty was corrupt to the core. The annexation of land was widespread, and the contradictions between classes became ever sharper. At the same time, the closed door policy caused Chinese science and economy to decline day by day. Meanwhile, world capitalism was rising. Economies developed rapidly, and competed with each other for enlarging overseas markets and scrambling for colonies. In 1840, the Opium War broke out. When the Qing Dynasty was defeated, foreign invaders poured into China, making incursions into its politics, culture, and economy. The closed door was opened by the imperialists' gunfire. On the other hand, the advanced science and technology of the West had a great impact on China's politics and economy. Various types of Western furniture of different styles came into China. At first, under the influence of Renaissance furniture, with its broad use of straight and curved lines and distinct gradations, the closet having columns and eaves with symmetrical curvilinear carvings appeared. The main stands of the bed were carved with whirling lines, and the facade was decorated with arch lines, spirals, and egg-shaped lines. However, not all the manufacturing skills were imitated. Many of the decorations were still traditional auspicious Chinese patterns.

Later, all the European baroque and rococo furniture which had risen in the 17th century, had varying degrees of impact on the development of modern furniture. Craftsmen of coastal cities concentrated on these skills in order to cope with the trend of handicrafts being replaced by mechanized production. Still, they mixed traditional skills and styles with those of Western furniture, and spread furniture with mixed Chines and Western Styles in China.